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AbxGuide team developed an initial list of priority pathogens and a standardized template for compiling data, that was tested and adapted following internal consultation.
The development of the AbxGuide database was informed by a review of treatment guidelines for adults published by the international societies, regional technical bodies and specialized agencies. The guidance for each organ system, syndrome or pathogen was compiled from at least three and most often five or more sources. The list of sources can be found
here.The review of treatment guidelines was performed between March 2022 and May 2023. The compiled data was internally reviewed and agreed upon by consensus of four experts. The guide then underwent an external peer review in which for every syndrome two independent experts reviewed the guidance based on their expertise and experience. The list of team experts and external peer reviewers can be found
here.To make sure the Guide adheres to the global objective of country-level target of at least 60% of used antibiotics are from Access category, the terminology and classification are aligned with the WHO AWaRe classification 2021, using the same colour-coding to reflect the category of the antibiotic.
For succinctness, some commonly used terms are presented as abbreviations. The full list can be found
here.Data sources
Community-acquired pneumonia:
Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention, Center for Disease Dynamics, Economics & Policy. African antibiotic treatment guidelines for common bacterial infections and syndromes. 1st ed. Addis Ababa: Africa CDC; 2021. Available from:
https://africacdc.org/african-antibiotic-treatment-guidelines-for-common-bacterial-infections-and-syndromes/Huttner B, Cappello B, Cooke G, Gandra S, Harbarth S, Imi M, et al. Community-acquired pneumonia treatment guidelines: there is a need for a change toward more parsimonious antibiotic use. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2020 May;201(10):1315–6. doi:10.1164/rccm.201911-2226LE. PMID: 32069065; PMCID: PMC7233347.
Metlay JP, Waterer GW, Long AC, Anzueto A, Brozek J, Crothers K, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of adults with community-acquired pneumonia: an official clinical practice guideline of the ATS and IDSA. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2019;200(7):e45–e67
Hospital-acquired pneumonia:
Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention, Center for Disease Dynamics, Economics & Policy. African antibiotic treatment guidelines for common bacterial infections and syndromes. 1st ed. Addis Ababa: Africa CDC; 2021 [accessed 2022 Jun 15]. Available from:
https://africacdc.org/african-antibiotic-treatment-guidelines-for-common-bacterial-infections-and-syndromes/Bassetti M, Echols R, Matsunaga Y, Ariyasu M, Doi Y, Ferrer R, et al. Efficacy and safety of cefiderocol or best available therapy for the treatment of serious infections caused by carbapenem-resistant Gram-negative bacteria (CREDIBLE-CR): a randomised, open-label, multicentre, pathogen-focused, descriptive, phase 3 trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2021;21(2):226–40. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30796-9.
Bassetti M, Peghin M. How to manage KPC infections. Ther Adv Infect Dis. 2020;7:2049936120912049. doi:10.1177/2049936120912049.
Infectious Diseases Society of America. IDSA guidelines on treatment of antimicrobial-resistant Gram-negative infections. Version 1.0. 2022 Mar 7. Available from:
https://www.idsociety.org/practice-guideline/amr-guidance/Infectious Diseases Society of America, American Thoracic Society. IDSA guidelines: management of adults with hospital-acquired and ventilator-associated pneumonia: 2016 clinical practice guidelines. 2016 Jul 14. Available from:
https://www.idsociety.org/practice-guideline/hap_vap/Torres A, Niederman MS, Chastre J, Ewig S, Fernandez-Vandellos P, Hanberger H, et al. International ERS/ESICM/ESCMID/ALAT guidelines for the management of hospital-acquired pneumonia and ventilator-associated pneumonia: guidelines of the European Respiratory Society, European Society of Intensive Care Medicine, European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, and Asociación Latinoamericana del Tórax. Eur Respir J. 2017;50(3):1700582. doi:10.1183/13993003.00582-2017.
Uptodate. Treatment of hospital-acquired and ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults [Internet]. [accessed 2023 May 8]. Available from:
https://www.uptodate.com/contents/treatment-of-hospital-acquired-and-ventilator-associated-pneumonia-in-adultsUrinary tract infections:
Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention, Center for Disease Dynamics, Economics & Policy. African antibiotic treatment guidelines for common bacterial infections and syndromes. 1st ed. Addis Ababa: Africa CDC; 2021 [accessed 2022 Jun 15]. Available from:
https://africacdc.org/african-antibiotic-treatment-guidelines-for-common-bacterial-infections-and-syndromes/European Association of Urology. EAU guidelines. Presented at the EAU Annual Congress, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, 2022. ISBN 978-94-92671-16-5 [accessed 2023 May 5]. Available from:
https://uroweb.org/guidelines/urological-infectionsInfectious Diseases Society of America. IDSA guidelines on treatment of antimicrobial-resistant Gram-negative infections. Version 1.0. 2022 Mar 7 [accessed 2022 Jun 15]. Available from:
https://www.idsociety.org/practice-guideline/amr-guidance/National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). Urinary tract infection (lower): antimicrobial prescribing. NICE guideline NG109. 2018 Oct [accessed 2022 Jun 15]. Available from:
https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng109Uptodate. Resource page on urinary tract infections [Internet]. [accessed 2023 May 8]. Available from:
https://www.uptodate.com/contents/table-of-contents/nephrology-and-hypertension/urinary-tract-infectionsMeningitis:
Dhariwal A, Leff R, Allen M, Cherian B. Intrathecal daptomycin use in a challenging case of Enterococcus faecium ventriculitis. Access Microbiol. 2022;4(4). doi:10.1099/acmi.0.000230.
Kim BN, Peleg AY, Lodise TP, et al. Management of meningitis due to antibiotic-resistant Acinetobacter species. Lancet Infect Dis. 2009;9(4):245–55. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(09)70055-6.
McCreary EK, Byers KE, Fernandes C, Kline EG, Nicolau DP, Shields RK. Plasma and cerebrospinal fluid therapeutic drug monitoring of ceftolozane and tazobactam during treatment of multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa meningitis. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2020;7(12):ofaa549. doi:10.1093/ofid/ofaa549.
McGill F. The UK Joint Specialist Societies guideline on the diagnosis and management of acute meningitis and meningococcal sepsis in immunocompetent adults. UK Health Security Agency. 2021 Feb 18.
Sigfrid L, Perfect C, Rojek A, et al. A systematic review of clinical guidelines on the management of acute, community-acquired CNS infections. BMC Med. 2019;17:170. doi:10.1186/s12916-019-1387-5.
Tunkel AR, Hasbun R, Bhimraj A, Byers K, Kaplan SL, Scheld WM, et al. 2017 Infectious Diseases Society of America’s clinical practice guidelines for healthcare-associated ventriculitis and meningitis. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;64(6):e34–e65. doi:10.1093/cid/ciw861.
Uptodate. Clinical features and diagnosis of acute bacterial meningitis in adults [Internet]. [accessed 2023 May 10]. Available from:
https://www.uptodate.com/contents/clinical-features-and-diagnosis-of-acute-bacterial-meningitis-in-adultsvan de Beek D, Brouwer MC, Thwaites GE, et al. ESCMID guideline: diagnosis and treatment of acute bacterial meningitis. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2016;22(Suppl 3):S37–S62. doi:10.1016/j.cmi.2016.01.007.
Skin and soft tissue infections:
Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention, Center for Disease Dynamics, Economics & Policy. African antibiotic treatment guidelines for common bacterial infections and syndromes. 1st ed. Addis Ababa: Africa CDC; 2021 [accessed 2022 Jun 15]. Available from:
https://africacdc.org/african-antibiotic-treatment-guidelines-for-common-bacterial-infections-and-syndromes/Fritzenwanker M, Imirzalioglu C, Herold S, Wagenlehner FM, Zimmer KP, Chakraborty T. Treatment options for carbapenem-resistant Gram-negative infections. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2018;115(20-21):345–52. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2018.0345.
Golan Y. Current treatment options for acute skin and skin-structure infections. Clin Infect Dis. 2019;68(Suppl 3):S206–12. doi:10.1093/cid/ciz004.
Hindy JR, Haddad SF, Kanj SS. New drugs for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus skin and soft tissue infections. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2022;35(2):112–9. doi:10.1097/QCO.0000000000000800.
Jabbour JF, Kanj SS. Gram-negative skin and soft tissue infections. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2021;35(1):157–67. doi:10.1016/j.idc.2020.10.008. Epub 2020 Dec 7.
Sartelli M, Coccolini F, Kluger Y, et al. WSES/GAIS/WSIS/SIS-E/AAST global clinical pathways for patients with skin and soft tissue infections. World J Emerg Surg. 2022;17(3):3. doi:10.1186/s13017-022-00406-2.
Stevens DL, Bryant AE. Practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of skin and soft tissue infections: 2014 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2014 Jul 15. Available from:
https://www.idsociety.org/practice-guideline/skin-and-soft-tissue-infections/Tamma PD, Aitken SL, Bonomo RA, Mathers AJ, van Duin D, Clancy CJ. Infectious Diseases Society of America antimicrobial-resistant treatment guidance: Gram-negative bacterial infections. Infectious Diseases Society of America. 2022; Version 1.1.
Uptodate. Suspected Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus skin and soft tissue infections in children >28 days: evaluation and management [Internet]. [accessed 2023 May 5]. Available from:
https://www.uptodate.com/contents/suspected-staphylococcus-aureus-and-streptococcal-skin-and-soft-tissue-infections-in-children-greater-than28-days-evaluation-and-managementBacteremia:
Alavi SM, Alavi L. Treatment of brucellosis: a systematic review of studies in recent twenty years. Caspian J Intern Med. 2013;4(2):636–41.
Cheng AC, McBryde ES, Wuthiekanun V, Chierakul W, Amornchai P, Day NP, et al. Dosing regimens of cotrimoxazole (trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole) for melioidosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2009;53(10):4193–9. doi:10.1128/AAC.01301-08.
El Chakhtoura NG, Saade E, Wilson BM, Perez F, Papp-Wallace KM, Bonomo RA. A 17-year nationwide study of Burkholderia cepacia complex bloodstream infections among patients in the United States Veterans Health Administration. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;65(8):1253–9. doi:10.1093/cid/cix559.
Eleftheriotis G, Marangos M, Lagadinou M, Bhagani S, Assimakopoulos SF. Oral antibiotics for bacteremia and infective endocarditis: current evidence and future perspectives. Microorganisms. 2023;11(12):3004. doi:10.3390/microorganisms11123004.
Elsaghir H, Reddivari AKR. Bacteroides Fragilis [Internet]. In: StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023 Jan [updated 2023 May 23]. Available from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553032/Jin C, Gibani MM, Pennington SH, Liu X, Ardrey A, Aljayyoussi G, et al. Treatment responses to azithromycin and ciprofloxacin in uncomplicated Salmonella Typhi infection: a comparison of clinical and microbiological data from a controlled human infection model. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2019;13(12):e0007955.
Katiyo S, Muller-Pebody B, Minaji M, Powell D, Johnson AP, De Pinna E, et al. Epidemiology and outcomes of nontyphoidal Salmonella bacteremias from England, 2004 to 2015. J Clin Microbiol. 2019;57(1):e01189-18. doi:10.1128/JCM.01189-18.
Kwayess R, Al Hariri HE, Hindy JR, et al. Burkholderia cepacia infections at sites other than the respiratory tract: a large case series from a tertiary referral hospital in Lebanon. J Epidemiol Glob Health. 2022;12:274–80. doi:10.1007/s44197-022-00048-2.
2013;4(2):636–41.
Liu C, Bayer A, Cosgrove SE, Daum RS, Fridkin SK, Gorwitz RJ, et al. Clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America for the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in adults and children. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52(3):e18–55. doi:10.1093/cid/ciq146.
Médecins Sans Frontières. Brucellosis [Internet]. In: MSF medical guidelines. [accessed 2023 Aug]. Available from:
https://medicalguidelines.msf.org/en/viewport/CG/english/brucellosis-16689930.htmlMillard MA, McManus KA, Wispelwey B. Severe sepsis due to Clostridium perfringens bacteremia of urinary origin: a case report and systematic review. Case Rep Infect Dis. 2016;2016:2981729. doi:10.1155/2016/2981729.
Paul M, Carrara E, Retamar P, Tängdén T, Bitterman R, Bonomo RA, et al. European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID) guidelines for the treatment of infections caused by multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacilli (endorsed by European Society of Intensive Care Medicine). Clin Microbiol Infect. 2022;28(4):521–47. doi:10.1016/j.cmi.2021.11.025.
Tamma PD, Aitken SL, Bonomo RA, Mathers AJ, van Duin D, Clancy CJ. Infectious Diseases Society of America antimicrobial-resistant treatment guidance: Gram-negative bacterial infections. Infectious Diseases Society of America. 2023;Version 3.0. Available from:
https://www.idsociety.org/practice-guideline/amr-guidance/UpToDate. [Internet]. [accessed 2023 Aug]. Available from:
https://www.uptodate.com/Native valve endocarditis:
Baddour LM, Wilson WR, Bayer AS, Fowler VG, Tleyjeh IM, Rybak MJ, et al. Infective endocarditis in adults: diagnosis, antimicrobial therapy, and management of complications. Circulation. 2015;132(15):1435–86. doi:10.1161/cir.0000000000000296.
Delgado V, Ajmone Marsan N, de Waha S, Bonaros N, Brida M, Burri H, et al. 2023 ESC guidelines for the management of endocarditis: developed by the task force on the management of endocarditis of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) endorsed by the European Association for Cardio-Thoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Association of Nuclear Medicine (EANM). Eur Heart J. 2023;44(39):3948–4042. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehad193.
Eleftheriotis G, Marangos M, Lagadinou M, Bhagani S, Assimakopoulos SF. Oral antibiotics for bacteremia and infective endocarditis: current evidence and future perspectives. Microorganisms. 2023;11(12):3004. doi:10.3390/microorganisms11123004.
Iversen K, Ihlemann N, Gill SU, Madsen T, Elming H, Jensen KT, et al. Partial oral versus intravenous antibiotic treatment of endocarditis. N Engl J Med. 2019;380(5):415–24. doi:10.1056/nejmoa1808312.
Jabeen K, Ali SB, Tufail Z, Mustafa S, Chaudhry M, Tahir MJ, et al. Salmonella typhi and endocarditis: a systematic review of case reports. Front Med. 2024;11:1363899. doi:10.3389/fmed.2024.1363899.
McDonald EG, Aggrey G, Aslan AT, Casias M, Cortes-Penfield N, Dong MQD, et al. Guidelines for diagnosis and management of infective endocarditis in adults: a WikiGuidelines Group consensus statement. JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6(7):e2326366. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.26366.
Sohail MR, Gray AL, Baddour LM, Tleyjeh IM, Virk A. Infective endocarditis due to Propionibacterium species. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2009;15(4):387–94. doi:10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.02764.x.
Tackling G, Lala V. Endocarditis antibiotic regimens [Internet]. In: StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan- [updated 2023 Apr 10]; [cited 2024 Aug]. Available from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK542162/UpToDate. [Internet]. [accessed 2023 Aug]. Available from:
https://www.uptodate.com/Prosthetic valve endocarditis:
Baddour LM, Wilson WR, Bayer AS, Fowler VG, Tleyjeh IM, Rybak MJ, et al. Infective endocarditis in adults: diagnosis, antimicrobial therapy, and management of complications. Circulation. 2015;132(15):1435–86. doi:10.1161/cir.0000000000000296.
Delgado V, Ajmone Marsan N, de Waha S, Bonaros N, Brida M, Burri H, et al. 2023 ESC guidelines for the management of endocarditis: developed by the task force on the management of endocarditis of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) endorsed by the European Association for Cardio-Thoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Association of Nuclear Medicine (EANM). Eur Heart J. 2023;44(39):3948–4042. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehad193.
Eleftheriotis G, Marangos M, Lagadinou M, Bhagani S, Assimakopoulos SF. Oral antibiotics for bacteremia and infective endocarditis: current evidence and future perspectives. Microorganisms. 2023;11(12):3004. doi:10.3390/microorganisms11123004.
Iversen K, Ihlemann N, Gill SU, Madsen T, Elming H, Jensen KT, et al. Partial oral versus intravenous antibiotic treatment of endocarditis. N Engl J Med. 2019;380(5):415–24. doi:10.1056/nejmoa1808312.
Jabeen K, Ali SB, Tufail Z, Mustafa S, Chaudhry M, Tahir MJ, et al. Salmonella typhi and endocarditis: a systematic review of case reports. Front Med. 2024;11:1363899. doi:10.3389/fmed.2024.1363899.
McDonald EG, Aggrey G, Aslan AT, Casias M, Cortes-Penfield N, Dong MQD, et al. Guidelines for diagnosis and management of infective endocarditis in adults: a WikiGuidelines Group consensus statement. JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6(7):e2326366. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.26366.
Sohail MR, Gray AL, Baddour LM, Tleyjeh IM, Virk A. Infective endocarditis due to Propionibacterium species. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2009;15(4):387–94. doi:10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.02764.x.
Tackling G, Lala V. Endocarditis antibiotic regimens [Internet]. In: StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan- [updated 2023 Apr 10]; [accessed 2024 Aug]. Available from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK542162/UpToDate. [Internet]. [accessed 2023 Aug]. Available from:
https://www.uptodate.com/Gastrointestinal infections:
Awada B, Hindy JR, Chalfoun M, Kanj SS. Cervical osteomyelitis potentially caused by Campylobacter fetus. J Infect Public Health. 2021;14(9):1233–6. doi:10.1016/j.jiph.2021.08.017.
Johnson S, Lavergne V, Skinner AM, Gonzales-Luna AJ, Garey KW, Kelly CP, et al. Clinical practice guideline by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) and Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA): 2021 focused update guidelines on management of Clostridioides difficile infection in adults. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;73(5):e1029–e1044. doi:10.1093/cid/ciab549.
Kanj SS, Araj GF, Taher A, Reller LB. Campylobacter fetus pericarditis in a patient with β-thalassemia: case report and review of the literature. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2001;7(9):510–3. doi:10.1046/j.1198-743x.2001.00300.x.
Riddle MS, DuPont HL, Connor BA. ACG clinical guideline: diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of acute diarrheal infections in adults. Am J Gastroenterol. 2016;111(5):602–22. doi:10.1038/ajg.2016.126.
Schmidt-Hieber M, Bierwirth J, Buchheidt D, et al. Diagnosis and management of gastrointestinal complications in adult cancer patients: 2017 updated evidence-based guidelines of the Infectious Diseases Working Party (AGIHO) of the German Society of Hematology and Medical Oncology (DGHO). Ann Hematol. 2018;97:31–49. doi:10.1007/s00277-017-3183-7.
Shane AL, Mody RK, Crump JA, Tarr PI, Steiner TS, Kotloff K, et al. 2017 Infectious Diseases Society of America clinical practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of infectious diarrhea. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;65(12):e45–e80. doi:10.1093/cid/cix669.
Van Prehn J, Reigadas E, Vogelzang EH, Bouza E, Hristea A, Guery B, et al. European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases: 2021 update on the treatment guidance document for Clostridioides difficile infection in adults. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2021;27:S1–S21. doi:10.1016/j.cmi.2021.09.038.
Bone and joint infections:
Alp E, Doganay M. Current therapeutic strategy in spinal brucellosis. Int J Infect Dis. 2008;12(6):573–7. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2008.03.014.
Baddour LM, Chen AF. Prosthetic joint infection: treatment. In: Post TW, editor. UpToDate [Internet]. Waltham (MA): Wolters Kluwer; [accessed 2025 May 1]. Available from:
https://www.uptodate.com/Berbari EF, Kanj SS, Kowalski TJ, Darouiche RO, Widmer AF, Schmitt SK, et al. 2015 Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) clinical practice guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of native vertebral osteomyelitis in adults. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;61(6):e26–46. doi:10.1093/cid/civ482.
Buijs SB, Weehuizen JM, Oosterheert JJ, van Roeden SE. Chronic Q fever vertebral osteomyelitis, an underrecognized clinical entity. Infect Dis (Lond). 2021;53(4):241–2. doi:10.1080/23744235.2020.1871509.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Gonococcal infections among adolescents and adults [Internet]. [accessed 2025 May 1]. Available from:
https://www.cdc.gov/std/treatment-guidelines/gonorrhea-adults/htmCortés-Penfield NW, Justo JA, McCreary EK, Ryder JH. Optimizing antibiotic therapy in musculoskeletal infections. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2025 Apr 11:S0891-5520(25)00014-5. doi:10.1016/j.idc.2025.02.009.
Cruickshank M, O’Flynn N, Faust SN. Lyme disease: summary of NICE guidance. BMJ. 2018;361:k1261.
El Ayoubi LW, Challita C, Kanj SS. The many faces of brucellosis: diagnostic and management approach. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2024;37(6):474–84. doi:10.1097/QCO.0000000000001045.
Goldenberg DL, Sexton DJ. Septic arthritis in adults. In: Post TW, editor. UpToDate [Internet]. Waltham (MA): Wolters Kluwer; [accessed 2025 May 1]. Available from:
https://www.uptodate.com/Haddad N, Ajaz J, Mansour L, Kasemodel R, Jarvis J, Jarad J, et al. A review of the clinical utilization of oral antibacterial therapy in the treatment of bone infections in adults. Antibiotics (Basel). 2024;13(4):4. doi:10.3390/antibiotics13010004.
Hum RM, Iftikhar H, Tang E, Ho P. Septic arthritis caused by Mycoplasma hominis in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus. BMJ Case Rep. 2022;15(1):e247675. doi:10.1136/bcr-2021-247675.
Johns Hopkins ABX Guide [Internet]. [cited 2025 May 1]. Available from: https://www.hopkinsguides.com/hopkins/.
Kullberg BJ, Vrijmoeth HD, van der Schoor F, Hovius JW. Lyme borreliosis: diagnosis and management. BMJ. 2020;369:m1041. doi:10.1136/bmj.m1041.
Osmon DR, Berbari EF, Berendt AR, Lew D, Zimmerli W, Steckelberg JM, et al. Diagnosis and management of prosthetic joint infection: clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;56(1):e1–25. doi:10.1093/cid/cis803.
Patel P. Periprosthetic joint infection. N Engl J Med. 2023;388:251–62. doi:10.1056/NEJMra2203477.
Paul M, Carrara E, Retamar P, Tängdén T, Bitterman R, Bonomo RA, et al. European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID) guidelines for the treatment of infections caused by multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacilli (endorsed by European Society of Intensive Care Medicine). Clin Microbiol Infect. 2022;28(4):521–47. doi:10.1016/j.cmi.2021.11.025.
Sanford Guide to Antimicrobial Therapy [Internet]. [accessed 2025 May 1]. Available from: https://www.sanfordguide.com/.
Spellberg B, Aggrey G, Brennan MB, et al. Use of novel strategies to develop guidelines for management of pyogenic osteomyelitis in adults. JAMA Netw Open. 2022;5(5):e2211321. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.11321.
Spellberg B, Lipsky BA. Systemic antibiotic therapy for chronic osteomyelitis in adults. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54(3):393–407. doi:10.1093/cid/cir842.
Tamma PD, Aitken SL, Bonomo RA, Mathers AJ, van Duin D, Clancy CJ. Infectious Diseases Society of America antimicrobial-resistant treatment guidance: Gram-negative bacterial infections. Infectious Diseases Society of America. 2024;Version 4.0. Available from:
https://www.idsociety.org/practice-guideline/amr-guidance/Tande AJ. Osteomyelitis in the absence of hardware: approach to treatment in adults. In: Post TW, editor. UpToDate [Internet]. Waltham (MA): Wolters Kluwer; [accessed 2025 May 1]. Available from:
https://www.uptodate.comThe Dutch Working Party on Antibiotic Policy (SWAB). The Dutch Working Party on Antibiotic Policy (SWAB) guideline for the antimicrobial treatment of periprosthetic joint infections. April 2024 [Internet]. Available from:
https://swab.nl/nl/bot-en-gewrichtsprothese-infecties-algemene-informatieTsilika M, Ntziora F, Giannitsioti E. Antimicrobial treatment options for multidrug-resistant Gram-negative pathogens in bone and joint infections. Pathogens. 2025;14(2):130. doi:10.3390/pathogens14020130.
Unuvar GK, Kilic AU, Doganay M. Current therapeutic strategy in osteoarticular brucellosis. North Clin Istanb. 2019;6(4):415–20. doi:10.14744/nci.2019.05658.
UpToDate [Internet]. Waltham (MA): Wolters Kluwer; [accessed 2025 May 1]. Available from:
https://www.uptodate.comvan Roeden SE, Bleeker-Rovers CP, de Regt MJA, Kampschreur LM, Hoepelman AIM, Wever PC, et al. Treatment of chronic Q fever: clinical efficacy and toxicity of antibiotic regimens. Clin Infect Dis. 2018;66(5):719–26. doi:10.1093/cid/cix886.
Verhagen I, Oudenhoven H, van Welzen B, Kwok W. Ureaplasma parvum bacterial arthritis of the elbow in a patient with rheumatoid arthritis treated with rituximab. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2021;60(1):e17–8. doi:10.1093/rheumatology/keaa358.
Eyes and Orbits infections:
Austin A, Lietman T, Rose-Nussbaumer J. Update on the management of infectious keratitis. Ophthalmology. 2017;124(11):1678–89. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2017.05.012. PMID: 28942073; PMCID: PMC5710829.
Azari AA, Barney NP. Conjunctivitis: a systematic review of diagnosis and treatment. JAMA. 2013;310(16):1721–9. doi:10.1001/jama.2013.280318. Erratum in: JAMA. 2014;311(1):95.
Brockhaus L, Goldblum D, Eggenschwiler L, Zimmerli S, Marzolini C. Revisiting systemic treatment of bacterial endophthalmitis: a review of intravitreal penetration of systemic antibiotics. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2019;25(11):1364–9. doi:10.1016/j.cmi.2019.01.017.
Chan VF, Yong AC, Azuara-Blanco A, Gordon I, Safi S, Lingham G, et al. A systematic review of clinical practice guidelines for infectious and non-infectious conjunctivitis. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2021;29(5):473–82. doi:10.1080/09286586.2021.1971262.
Chang VS, Dhaliwal DK, Raju L, Kowalski RP. Antibiotic resistance in the treatment of Staphylococcus aureus keratitis: a 20-year review. Cornea. 2015;34(6):698–703. doi:10.1097/ICO.0000000000000431.
Chen KJ, Sun MH, Hou CH, et al. Susceptibility of bacterial endophthalmitis isolates to vancomycin, ceftazidime, and amikacin. Sci Rep. 2021;11:15878. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-95458-w.
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Abbreviations used in the AbxGuide
| 1SR | one-stage revision |
| 2SR | two-stage revision |
| BLNAR | beta-lactamase negative, amoxicillin resistant |
| BL/BLI | beta-lactamase/beta-lactamase inhibitor |
| BPH | benign prostatic hyperplasia |
| CAP | community-acquired pneumonia |
| CAUTI | catheter-associated urinary tract infection |
| CoNS | coagulase-negative staphylococci |
| CMS | colistimethate sodium |
| CRE | carbapenem-resistant enterobacterales |
| DAIR | debridement, antibiotics and implant retention |
| DDI | drug-drug interaction |
| DS | double strength |
| DTR | difficult-to-treat |
| EI | extended infusion |
| ESBL | extended-spectrum beta-lactamase |
| f | fortified (eye drops) |
| FRI | fracture-related infection |
| HLAR | high-level gentamicin resistance |
| ggt | eye drops |
| GU | genito-urinary |
| HAP | hospital-acquired pneumonia |
| IC | immunocompromised (patient) |
| IM | intramuscular (administration) |
| IT | intrathecal (administration) |
| IV | intravenous (administration) |
| IVT | Intraventricular (administration) |
| IVt | Intravitreal (administration) |
| KPC | Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemase |
| MBL | metallobetalactamase |
| MDR | multidrug-resistant |
| MIC | minimal inhibitory concentration |
| MIU | million international units |
| MRCoNS | methicillin-resistant coagulase-negative staphylocci |
| MSCoNS | methicillin-susceptible coagulase-negative staphylocci |
| MRSA | methicillin-resistant S. aureus |
| MSSA | methicillin-susceptible S. aureus |
| NAAT | nucleic acid amplification test |
| NDM | New Delhi metallo-beta-lactamase |
| OO | ophthalmic ointment |
| OT | Otic |
| OXA-48 | oxacillinase-48 |
| PDR | pandrug-resistant |
| PO | per os (oral administration) |
| SSRI | selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor |
| SNRI | serotonin and norepinephrine re-uptake inhibitor |
| SSTI | skin and soft tissue infections |
| STI | sexually-transmitted infections |
| TMP/SMX | sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim |
| UTI | urinary tract infections |
| VRE | vancomycin-resistant enterococci |
| XDR | extensively drug-resistant |
AbxGuide is easy-to-use open access online database compiling evidence on pathogen-directed antibiotic treatment covering over major pathogens affecting different organs and tissues.
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